It found that while preventing known troublemakers from travelling is important, the way to foster incident-free events is a 'low profile', friendly-but-firm police presence, and dealing with fans on the basis of their behaviour not their reputation.

The study, led by Dr Clifford Stott and Dr Otto Adang of the University of Liverpool School of Psychology, analysed the impact of police tactics on levels of hooliganism at Euro 2004 - the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) championships held in Portugal in June and July of last year.

Researchers included a team of observers from the Portuguese Police Academy and the Universities of Coimbra, Oporto and Lisbon.

Their report shows that when England supporters are treated from the outset as fans rather than 'hooligans', they see themselves as on the same side as the police, sharing the same interest in preventing violence.

Faced with this 'low profile' policing approach, ordinary fans are more likely to oppose trouble among other supporters through 'self-policing', and to regard themselves as friends with fans from other nations.

The findings give a definite 'thumbs up' to the 'low profile' tactics adopted by Portugal's Public Security Police (PSP), in line with advice given to the force by the Liverpool psychologists before the tournament.

If police were visible and the risk of trouble was thought to be normal, the proportion of uniformed officers visible in the crowd was on average only four per every 100 fans.

Where police were present, they were in standard uniforms rather than full riot gear, and were used simply to monitor fan behaviour. Riot police were positioned close by but deliberately out of sight. They could, however, be quickly on hand if needed.

Extensive use was also made of plainc
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Contact: Alexandra Saxon
alexandra.saxon@esrc.ac.uk
44-1-793-413-032
Economic & Social Research Council
13-Oct-2005